Sunday, October 6, 2019
Definitional Arguments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Definitional Arguments - Essay Example Notably, definitions appear in almost every argument, though sometimes they are hidden or tacitly accepted. But they rarely appear in isolation; the challenge in definitional arguments is for an individual to find the definitional claims that underlie other claims in academic, civic or other types of arguments. Pier Jennifer and Pattakos Alex provide a deeper understanding of definitional arguments through their respective articles â€Å"The Reprehensibility of the White Lie†and â€Å"The Meaning of Friendship in a Social-Networked World†. In each article there is a central issue or argument, which has been developed through a series of steps. In the article â€Å"The Reprehensibility of the White Lie†, the central issue is the white lies. In this article, Pier uses various examples that are familiar to provide an understandable definition of white lies. For instance, Pier uses daily conversations to define the concept of white lies. Amongst the aspects that Pie r uses to define white lies include of course, it was a blast, and it wasn’t me. Pier’s main concern is the evasion of responsibility in as far as white lies are concerned throughout her article. In order to support her definition, Pier uses various criteria. ... Another claim that Pier uses to justify the definition of white lies is the creation of the distinction between white lies and other forms of duplicity. Thirdly, Pier claims that white lies are destructive. The second criterion that Pier uses to justify the definition of white lies is crafting of definitions. One of the definitions crafted by Pier is the operational definition of white lies. Pier tries to find a common ‘perfect’ lie capable of fitting all the mentioned claims or qualifications. Lastly, Pier used the criterion of mapping the formulated claims and crafted definition to come up with a convincing conclusion in regards to definition of white lies (206-209). In the second article, â€Å"The Meaning of Friendship in a Social-Networked World†, Pattakos’ main or central issue is friends and how their acquisition contributes to a meaningful life. Just like Pier, Pattakos uses familiar examples and concepts to help in defining friends. In addition, Pa ttakos uses ideas from different stakeholders and scholars such as Aristotle and Mark Zuckerberg to try and establish the definition of friends and its relationship with meaningful life. In a bid to justify the definition, Pattakos employs various criteria. The first criterion employed by Pattakos in the article is the use of claims. Pattakos has employed various claims in a bid to justify the definition of friends. The first claim is that friends significantly contribute to meaningful life. Another claim that Pattakos makes in relation to finding the definition of friends is that various reasons prompt the search for the meaning of friends. For instance, the intrinsic motivation of persons and the fact that it is a megatrend within the 21st century to understand and
Friday, October 4, 2019
A feminist superhero Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words
A feminist superhero - Essay Example Frida Kahlo mentored by Iris Marion Young, who is a feminist theorist, under whose feministic argument and glow, the superhero sails. The paper exploits the underlying reasons as to why feminists seek liberation as well as how they seek to get that liberation. Frida Kahlo has the power facing the reality as it is fearless. Though she was born in 1907, as she grew up Frida claimed that she was born in 1910 - the year when the Mexican Revolution begun - so that people would directly associate her with the revolution (Chadwick, 2007). Association with revolution signified her fearlessness and ability to go against the social norms of the time. Empowered with the advice of Irish Marion who was very vocal against the gendered positioning of women as objects, Frida revolted against the predominantly held paternalistic ideologies and beliefs of the time (Ferguson & Nagel, 2009). Further, Frida had the ability to communicate her feelings through paintings she was an artist. â€Å"Look at the society in which you have been born and see the image that women are presented. Aren’t they seen as objects in the society?†Marion would ask Kahlo referring to the domination of women by men. â€Å"I had no choice to be born in such a paternal society where male sex is always considered superior to their female counterparts.†Frida responded naively. â€Å"Use then your artistic work to liberate women from the traditional obscurity and bring them to the fore light of recognition in the society.†This mentor’s advice brought hope to solving the historical stalemate that has traditionally positioned women as objects rather than fellow human beings capable of self-expression and independent opinion (Chadwick, 2007). Walking in the light and mentorship of Young Marion, Frida Kahlo staged a revolution through her living experiences and her artworks. Looking through her artwork and paintings,
Thursday, October 3, 2019
The Origin of Childhood †National Geographic Magazine Essay Example for Free
The Origin of Childhood – National Geographic Magazine Essay The article talks about the discovery of the remains of a hominin child 3.3 million year back by an Ethiopian scientist Zeresenay Alemseged. The differentiating factor of this find is the fact that the child’s bones were intact and the find itself is like digging gold in the world of archeology. The find is able to give us an in-depth knowledge about the body structure and capabilities of the hominins, it also tells us how the babies were changing from chimps to what we are now. It also draws comparisons to Lucy, the fossil of a mother 3.2 million years old which was found in the 1970’s. with the finding of the child, the family of Australopithecus afarensis is now complete and scientists are able to make conclusions about how they lived, what they could and what they could not do.                        Based on the shape of its shoulders scientists can say that this child could climb tress, also the shape and size of its knee cap suggests that this child could walk on 2 legs.                        The article also talks about how Zeresenay is one of the few Ethiopian scientists involved in this field although this part of the world has been a treasure cove for finding many remains of animals and different species of mammals. Most of the expeditions in this part of the world had mainly been foreign before Zeresenay took the lead in 1999. the article talks about their struggle as there were a couple of findings of mammals in that area but no hominins and Zeresenay’s belief that they will be able to find hominins in that part of the world. Finally in 2000, it all came true when Zeresenay’s team found the remains of a child. However, to the contrast of making a skeleton out of hundreds of small pieces of bones their challenge was quite the opposite. The remains were found in a ball of sandstone and thus Zeresenay had to cut through it with a dentist’s drill to ensure that no part of the child’s’ body was damaged and they could recover everything there was in that ball of sandstone. The result of 5 years of that effort is a treasure that he says comes only once in a lifetime.                        The startling features being a full set of both the milk teeth and unerupted adult teeth; also a bone in the throat that is considered to be the main crucial part of human speech. Other findings include a curled finger which tells us their resemblance with chimpanzees and her ribs that tell us the size of the child.                        It talks about how the knee caps of the child were the size of the pea that tells us that this ‘man’ could walk on 2 legs. What is also worth noting is that the brain of this child was very small at 330cc compared to a 5 year old human child whose brain is over a 1000cc. this tells us that the growth of the brain was slow and there is resemblance with chimpanzees there. It talks about the feet of the child that were not like a chimpanzee but rather like us humans. This meant that the child could not hang on to its mother and had to b carried by the mother, this left the mother helpless and dependant for food and other things on her mate. The scientists say this should have been the time when the bonds became stronger and that is why humans are monogamous as compared to other apes.                        The article ends by telling us that this specie did not eat meat and a million years late when man started eating meat, which is when the brain size started getting larger as 40% of our food goes into sustaining our brain. For specie that is mainly dependent on vegetables and leaves, this would have been very difficult. The article ends by saying that as the brains of the humans keep growing bigger and bigger we will have more ‘intellectual power’ to find our roots. Why I chose this article                        I am quizzical about how human life started and how and why we changed from being Chimps to being who we are today and what lies beyond our planet and if there is life on other planets. I chose this particular article because it tries to tell us or rather the whole article is about that part in time where we were still dependent on our parents but starting to live longer than other ‘close’ members of our specie.                        The human child is very weak, it can’t talk, it can’t walk, it can’t express itself in any other way apart from crying and making face expressions. Basically, it is helpless. It someone does not take care of the child, the child cannot survive.                        This article tells us about the life of a 3 year old girl who lived 3.3 Million year ago. However, the special thing about this girl is the fact that she is in one of those defining moments of time where we as specie started to separate from chimpanzees and started having the physical capabilities to live as human beings.                        Another motivation to choose this article was the way they talk about the little child. It is almost magical and makes me felt hat I have been transported into a world where I can actually visualize this child and see how we humans came about to be who we are today. The way the author talks about the scientist who discovered and painstakingly got the bones from the sandstone vs. how he talks about the parts of the honninin baby body parts brings a sense of life to that child. The biological aspect is obviously enchanting but I will talk about that in the next section.                        The articles use of graphics is phenomenal in showing how the child looked and what were the limitations of his body compared to ours, it also clearly mentions the developments of this child compared to that of his and our ancestors. An important part is the development of the brain and the hands as discusses in the earlier section. Overall, the reason to choose this article is the impact that it has had on me about human evolution. My opinion of the article and how it relates to Biology                        As I just mentioned, this article has left a beautiful impression on me about the evolution of human beings and has in a way made me fall in love with the 3 year old child from our history. I feel the article is very well written because it brings along a vivid image about the life of the child in that era and the use of imagery is phenomenal in showing us how the child looks and how it has changed to how we look now. There is also a sketch of the mother in that era holding her child and it shows how the child in that era was beginning to be dependent on his or her mother for care protection and other needs.                        The relation to biology comes from the fact that it talks about the development of the body and how it had changed from that of a chimpanzee and starting to look like ours. For example, the fingers of the child were curved and that is more like a chimpanzee however the feet of the child did not have long fingers which meant that unlike children of chimpanzees this child could not cling on to this mothers’ body as there was no grasp. It also talks about the set of milk teeth and adult teeth and their placement in the jaw or rather the jaw line, this tells us about what the child could and what it could although the food habits are not specifically mentioned in the article. The article also gives a glimpse about how the hominins lived and survived.
Impacts of Public Art on Society
Impacts of Public Art on Society Introduction Art is wholly subjective. Ten people may have ten different interpretations of one single work of art. On the most basic of levels they could love it, hate it or be indifferent to it. On a more informed level they may read different information from it, and ask different questions as to its artistic value. Human behaviour, by the literal meaning of it, is equally as subjective. Each individual has human traits that are based on personal experience. However, group dynamics can be quantified objectively using controlled research methods. For this essay I shall examine how art is used to encourage certain changes in human behaviour, both mentally and physically. This dissertation aims to understand how art affects the behaviour of an individual and the associated effects of the environment on the development of character of an individual as a person. Taking into consideration that art and human behaviour are subjective I intend to research, review, analyse and interpret how organisations have utilised one for the outcome of the other. I shall look at how public buildings, whose main purpose and function are not to display art, have embraced shapes and colours in order to guide the emotional and physical state of its patrons. During the analysis I shall be examining the different theories of experts in this argument. I will be considering the artistic viewpoint and the scientific approach as well as a cultural and philosophical perspective. In my conclusion I hope to have ascertained enough information from my research to confidently state my opinions on how art, in the simplistic terms of shape and colour, has been used to project a subliminal, psychological impact on the people that come into contact with it. Objective The main question I am asking in this essay is whether artistic forms, be it painting, sculpture, shape or colour, has an impact on people and their behaviour in an environment that is not necessarily expected to display art. This question will enable me to research the impact of public art in buildings such as hospitals, schools, libraries and other public locations where steps have been taken to introduce art outside the confines of a museum or gallery. Therefore the objective of this dissertation would be to create an environment that would be beneficial to pupils, patients, clients and even the entire community. Literature Review The connotations of colour and human behaviour, specifically mood, have been understood and utilised for millennia. During the Vedic Age in India (1500BC – 600BC) there was a conceptual belief that colour could represent different emotions, one such concept proposes that: there are three interwoven mental states which are; energy, inertia and clarity and that we all fluctuate between degrees of these states. These three qualities are given colours Energy is symbolised by red, inertia by black or dark blue and clarity is light and colourless. (McDonagh 2003: 170). Considering that this is not a new subject there is a wide selection of literature available on this particular subject. I am attempting to focus my essay on the four most relevant subjects that encompass the whole of my research: Connotation of Colour throughout history; Psychology and Physiology of Human Behaviour (in controlled environments); Public Art in alternative locations (not museums or galleries); and Philosophy of Pragmatism in Art. My literature review will be made up from a combination of books, journals, research studies and interviews. Due to the overlapping nature of this essay I shall be focusing on a wide aspect of subject matter including art history, architecture, philosophy, psychology and sociology. I have accumulated around fifty sources for this essay and have systematically narrowed them down to include only the information that is relevant to my purposes. Having read through the information I have discovered that what started as a simple question has unearthed a number of different theories and interpretations; including opinions that were contrary to my original beliefs; thu s forcing me to truly take on an objective view of my work. Using critical analysis of the literature I intend to produce a well argued, objective essay that shall help me answer my original question. During my research into the above subjects I found a number of published authors, sociologist, psychologists and artists who are experts in their particular field. It was both assuring and eye-opening to read and interpret their views and as such I believe they shaped my approach to writing this essay. I found some more important to my research than others, and these included the following: Malcolm Miles writing about public art in cities in his book ‘Art, Space and the City: Public Art and Urban Futures’; Alexander Schauss’ study on the affect of colour in a controlled; Carolyn Bloomer writing about the interpretation of colour in her book ‘Principles of Visual Perception’; psychologist Tony Cassidy and his research into colour tests in his book ‘Environmental Psychology: Behaviour and Experience in Context’; pragmatist John Dewey and his early twentieth century theories on the conception of art as a means of improving life; and author C hristopher Day in his work on how colours can improve daily living in his book ‘Environment and Children: Passive Lessons from the Everyday Environment’. Methodology The methodology I am using in this essay will predominantly be data-analysis from previously researched case studies, journals and published works. I shall, however, use data-gathering in my essay wherever possible; be it from interviews with art curators, members of the public or my own observation. I have chosen to analyse previous work and research on my subject matters due to the wealth of information available. Where I believe that vital information or data is missing I have decided to collate it myself. I believe this will allow my essay to objectively interpret cited work but also to include subjective and personal opinions on a range of subjects. After all, art and human nature are subjective topics. A questionnaire that aims to investigate what works and what does not work and whether art serves a specific purpose will be given to participants. Within the time constraints to complete this dissertation, a questionnaire is useful for this kind of investigation as it can reach more people. Observation is considered too time-consuming, taking too long to be meaningful. Other factors that need to be taken into consideration include obtaining/seeking permission/consent from the head teachers of the schools or directors of the hospitals to carry out the investigation. A letter to the school or hospital to obtain their approval and consent for the investigation will be written, in addition to a letter to the parents of the pupils who are under the age of 16 for their consent and approval for their son/daughter to take part in the investigation. Human Research Ethics (Ethical issues) Due to the nature of this essay I shall be examining, amongst other findings, how human behaviour can change in relation to the environment that they are in. Because this deals with the mental and physical state of an individual I understand that I am in a position of trust, and as such any data will be gathered in strict confidence. However, because a large percentage of my findings are from data that has already been gathered I do not find myself in a position where my research ethics are questioned. I understand that if I was to delve further into the research on human behaviour patterns I would need to pay close attention to confidentiality and care towards any participants in my research; especially if I was to recreate the ‘Baker-Miller Pink’ test, in which individuals who have just been arrested are place in a pink holding cell and their mental and physical state is measured. It would also be of utmost importance to deal with any participants in prison or mental h ealth facilities with integrity and diplomacy. Analysis and Interpretation – Connotations of Colour In the search for an ideal environment that would benefit people who come into contact with it I believe that the first place to look is in the past, and understand how history has harnessed colour as a means of expressing emotion. The idea of colour may seem like a simple concept but, depending on your particular viewpoint, it can prove to mean many different things. In the world of physics colour is determined by the wavelength of light; to a physiologist and psychologist colour is perceived by neural responses in the eye and brain; to the sociologist it is linked with our own culture and to the artist it is an expressive creation. The basic premise of colour, that is, the colour that we can make ourselves, is that it is made up of three primary colours; red, blue and yellow: Primary colours are ones that cannot be made by mixing other colours. (Morris 2006: 56). When the primary colours are mixed they create the secondary colours: The secondary colours are orange, green and violet . They are produced by mixing two primary colours. (Morris 2006: 56). Finally there are the tertiary colours; these are created by mixing any primary colour with its adjacent secondary colour produces a tertiary colour (Morris 2006: 56) and include combination colours such as orange-yellow and blue-green. The full spectrum of colour is possible by mixing colours in relation to the desired outcome, like adding ingredients to a recipe. The origins of humans recreating colour can be traced back to primitive cave paintings, examples in Europe date back 32,000 years. Although primitive by today’s standards, these depictions of wild animals by the hunter-gatherers were exquisitely painted on the rock surface using red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Even though the use of reds and yellows was mainly due to the materials available to them, the colourful imagery could be described as abstract insomuch that the actual animals were not as vividly coloured as t he artwork portrayed. Interestingly the two colours used are primary colours. As mentioned previously the ancient Indian cultures believed that different colours signified separate mental states. The Egyptians also used colours to connote different meaning in that they â€Å"originated the idea of red fiends or red devils, the origin of the Christian image of a red Satan. In later dynasties, words with evil connotations were written in papyri in red ink. (Eiseman 2000: 35). Red is a colour that is perhaps the most powerful hue and its meaning around the world has always symbolised energy and life; the word ‘red’ in many different languages is derived from the word for ‘blood’. However, different cultures interpret colours in different ways; like the Egyptians before them, the Japanese saw red as the colour of demons and devils, yet in the Middle East that imagery was not apparent: During the early Kamakura period, about AD 1200, Japanese artist Jigoku Soshi painted his ‘Hell Scroll’ with frightening red demons chasing to rmented victims; while to Persians and Turks, as reflected in their magnificent carpets, red symbolizes happiness and joy. (Eiseman 2000: 32). In the West our cultural understanding of semiotics has conditioned us to add extra information to data that we can see. In the UK red is seen as the colour of danger; a red light means stop, a red traffic sign is a warning. Because red is such a vibrant colour, and the fact that is the first primary colour of the spectrum of light, it holds an unrivalled importance in the way it used in the natural and man-made world: Reds are generally regarded as stimulating and exciting. (Miller 1997: 104). In terms of human physiological reaction to the colour red, it is thought to speed up heart and respiration rates and to raise blood pressure, and [is] associated with strength, passion, and the colour of blood and fire. (Bloomer 1976: 120). Red has always been seen as the colour of power and energy; this has been demonstrated in the socio-political ar ena by the Communist movement; so much so that during the McCarthy Communist witch-hunts in 1950s American, the phrase ‘Better Dead than Red’ was echoed around the country. The phrase is a strong indicator of how powerful the word ‘red’ truly was. Only three letters long, it embodied all that was ‘un-American’ in the world, promoting fear and a Cold War that lasted over forty years, yet when include with two other colours it symbolized undying patriotism: ‘red, white and blue’. Looking at another primary colour, blue, it is interesting to see how different cultures perceive this particular colour to that of red. In the modern West the most simple, almost child-like reading of the two colours is ‘hot’ and ‘cold’. However, throughout history the reproduction of the colour blue has meant more than just a signifier for cold water. In ancient Egypt the colour was used to connote loyalty and virtue: these identifications with the hue go as far back as 1340BC to the Egyptian civilization and the reign of King Tut. (Bleicher 2004: 37). However, whereas the Egyptians considered blue to be a symbol of truth, the Cherokee tribes and the Japanese see it differently: to the Cherokee, blue is a symbol of defeat. In Japanese theatre, blue is the colour for villains. (Hullfish Fowler 2003: 28). In Western culture the colour blue was not widely used until the Church began to paint religious figures, notably the clothing of Virgin Mary, with a pigm ent extracted from a blue gem stone, lapis lazuli. This religious link led the colour to symbolise â€Å"piety, truth and goodness†(Bleicher 2004: 37). Today blues are considered: â€Å"calming, restful, serene, cool, comfortable, sober, and contemplative. (Miller 1997: 104) and are thought to reduce blood pressure, pulse, and respiration rates. (Bloomer 1976: 120). Navy blue, a dark blue, is still used in the clothing of the business world to promote a feeling of truth and honesty. Blue is perceived as being a neutral colour in so much that it is the colour of the sea and, unlike land, is not owned by tyrannical, or democratic, rule. It also symbolises a form of depression, as in ‘feeling blue’ and can connote coldness, or even something that is beyond the boundaries of acceptable behaviour, that is, blue language or blue movie. The final primary colour, yellow, has always held an integral part of any man-made creation. It is the colour of the sun; the shining star that gives energy to the planet. The ancient civilizations used the yellow as a symbol of their beliefs and religion: As a colour sacred to the Chinese and important to the Egyptians and Greeks, yellow gradually became a symbol of power. (Walker 2002: 24) In many indigenous tribes the colour yellow bore the deepest religious meaning, in south America the Aztecs believed yellow was the colour of life and food and the Mayans celebrated the colour as one that had the power to bring daily life: â€Å"The Mayas of Yucatan assigned it to the dawn and the east. (Brinton 2004: 237). However, the fact that yellow was so important to the ancient civilizations was detrimental to the beliefs of the early Christians, and yellow began to become associated with negativity: Yellow has been associated with deceit, cowardice, and jealousy†(Walker 2002: 24). In certain parts of Africa yellow is associated with love â€Å"because its the colour of honey. (Kaldera Schwartzstein 2002: 21). Gold is a softer shade of yellow and therefore seems to shed any of its negative images, but perhaps this is because the connotations are so intrinsically linked with wealth. Today yellow is considered sunny, cheerful, and high spirited, the happiest of all colours. (Miller 1997: 105) and it is also seen as being an expansive colour, one which appears to spread out as well as to advance†(Swirnoff 1988: 38). Throughout history yellow will always be seen as a bright, force-giving colour. This is perhaps due to the very child-like imagery of the sun; give almost any child a yellow crayon and ask them to draw the sky and in the corner of the picture appears a bright yellow orb with rays of sunshine emitting from it. The negative connotations seem to be rooted in cultural and religious differences, even racism. Chinese and Japanese people were often referred to as ‘yellow’ by an ignorant West. This was fundamentally based on the complexion of the skin; however, early Chinese rulers were called yellow emperors due to the power imagery of the colour, and the importance of the Yellow River. Obviously the primary colours are not the only colours that civilization has encapsulated in culture, religion or art; the secondary and tertiary colours are just as important. Unfortunately I do not have the space to describe every single colour but feel that some important ones need to be mentioned. Green is a very popular word in that its connotation seems to be of more value than its denotation. Like ‘red’ was in the 1950s, the word ‘green’ means far more than a colour. Green is an ecological, economical and political word that covers anything from Amazonian rainforests, nuclear power stations, recycling and political parties. In wooded and forested areas of the planet green is the background colour, in cityscapes green is what the majority of people miss; ‘the grass is always greener’ is a Western saying that strikes home in this situation, as in things are always better on the other side of the fence, country or world. If looking at a glob e of the planet the two main colours are blue (water) and green (land). Green can be considered neutral, but at the same time it means jealousy; a human trait that has shaped our political world for millennia. This duality allows green to be both warm and cool; it contains both the calming presence of blueness and the energy of yellowness. (Miller 1997: 104). Green can be the bridge between the natural and man-made world: Low saturation greens can serve as a transition between architecture and nature. (Kaufman Dahl 1992: 130). The combination of red and blue creates purple, a hue that can evoke delicacy and richness or appear unsettling and degenerate.†(Miller 1997: 105). Purple is a very regal colour and is often worn by royalty and world leaders during ceremonies; the leading figures in the Roman senate would proudly display purple within the design of their togas. Purple is cold colour and can connote physical harm such as a bruise or visible veins. Yet the pretentiousness of the colour is by far its strongest meaning and is considered dignified, exclusive, but lonely, mournful, or pompous. (Mahnke Mahnke 1993: 13). Orange is the mix of red and yellow, the two energetic primary colours. From a geological perspective this is the combination of lava and the sun. Historically orange has always had connotations of heat, energy and intensity; mainly rooted from its representation of the flames from a fire, and the warming embers of man-made safety. Perhaps it is this safety that affords the colour to be neither good nor bad: Orange has always suffered something of an identity crisis. It has spent its history playing second fiddle to red, and occasionally to gold. (Varley 1980: 194). It is hard to think of an example where orange is used as imagery: It has virtually no negative associations, neither emotionally or culturally†¦ and its emphatically positive meanings are few. (Varley 1980: 194). Even though technically black and white are not colours, but the result of an object reflecting or absorbing light wavelengths, they form an important role in the world around us. Things are labelled in the most simplistic terms of being either black or white; it is a situation where there can be no middle ground, it is right or wrong, yes or no. Cultural and political education enables us to know that this is very rarely the case, and using a similar analogy: there is no black and white, only different shades of grey. What black tends to imply is nothingness, a void. In contrast white is pure, enlightenment and goodness. In terms of race using black as a prefix seemed to connote the opposite, making the word derogatory; black magic, black arts and black mark. The connotations of colour are complex and centred on diverse cultural meanings from different civilizations around the world. The meaning of a word can change over the course of history. The language surrounding colour is so advanced that even on the most basic of levels one person could identify a certain shade of colour positively, yet another could read it negatively. With this in mind I can move on to how art and colour is used to study the complexities of human behaviour. Psychology and Physiology of Human Behaviour (in controlled environments) The next logical step in my search for the most beneficial environment is to use the above information on colour and relate it to scientific study, predominantly in the areas of psychology and physiology. The simplest and most common definition of psychology is that it is the scientific study of behaviour, in other words psychology is â€Å"the science that makes use of behavioural and other evidence to understand the internal processes leading people and members of other species to behave in the ways that they do. (Eysenck 2000: 3). Physiology and in particular human physiology: â€Å"studies the functions and activities of living human bodies and their components (Torshin 2007: 11). In this essay I shall use physiology to study human responses such as heart rate, blood pressure and the effects of tension. As mentioned at the beginning of this essay most of my data has been gathered from previous studies. I intend to investigate how mood and emotion can be measured, and ultimately influenced. Mood states were not always welcomed by the scientific community; the behavioural and cognitive paradigms so prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s often tended to devalue the significance of moods. Frequently, mood and effect went without mention in prominent analyses of behaviour (Zajonc 1980). However, this devaluation has changed in recent times and most behavioural analyses today include significant affective components (Tomkins 1981). Mood is clearly a bio-psychological process that involves the whole individual. In other words, mood would not occur without biochemical, psycho physiological and cognitive components, as well as subjective reactions: â€Å"Implicit assumption that mood is nothing more than a response caused by cognitive, physiological and biochemical events. Thus, subjective feelings are regarded as the last process.†(Thayer 1989: 5). It is my opinion that subjective feelin gs interact together to affect the mood of the individual. Mood is related to emotion, but when the term ‘mood’ is used, it usually implies a longer course of time, which is probably the central distinction between the two. In 1965 the Nowlis Mood Adjective Check List (MACL), a statistical method to define and analyse mood, was introduced that consisted of 33 adjectives selected from a large pool of emotion and mood terms. The subjects are asked to check each item that applies to their mood state of the day (Frijda 1986: 181). I have prepared and sent out questionnaires to subjects that ask them to disclose if they believe they have an emotional response from specific colours. It is the psychological and physiological response to colours that I believe is most beneficial to my research. In 1978 Professor Alexander Schauss of the American Institute for Biosocial Research in Tacoma, Washington set up a scientific experiment to study the effects that colour had on human behaviour. Working from initial ideas he had read in published work by Swiss psychiatrist Max Luscher, Schauss found that concentrating on a certain shade of pink (originally labelled P-618) after physical exercise lowered his heart rate, pulse and respiration as compared to other colours (Schauss 1981: 1). With the assistance of the United States Naval Correctional Centre in Seattle, Schauss was able to begin his study. Schauss renamed the colour to ‘Baker-Miller pink’ in dedication to the two officers at the centre, Commander Miller and CWO Baker. The walls and ceiling of one of the admission cells was painted in Baker-Miller pink (figure 1), while the remaining cells were left untouched. Newly confined prisoners were systematically admitted to the cell and observed for fifteen minutes du ring which no incidents of erratic behaviour were recorded (Eiseman 2000: 40). This research continued for 156 consecutive days, beginning on 1 March 1979. The results during this period were reported to the United States Navy’s Bureau of Naval Personnel, Law Enforcement and Corrections Division, Washington, D.C., stating: Since initiation of this procedure on March 1, 1979, there have been no incidents of erratic or hostile behavior daring the initial phase of confinement. (Schauss 1981: 1). The data from this study showed that after only a period of fifteen minutes exposed to the Baker-Miller pink, detainees were not demonstrating any violent or aggressive behaviour. This calming effect could actually continue for up to thirty minutes after the subject had been removed from the cell. So successful was Schauss’ experiment that he took it to a county sheriff’s office in California where he noted that its effectiveness was increased within a smaller space; the sm aller the cell the less chance of violent behaviour. (Schauss 1981: 1). The Baker-Miller pink has been used widely in detention facilities: â€Å"The use of this colour in juvenile correctional centres, psychiatric hospitals and its testing under laboratory conditions with students confirms its effect in suppressing violent and aggressive behaviour. (Cassidy 1997: 84) In 1988 an experiment was set up to determine the effects of colour in the office workplace in relation to the mood of its workers. Professors Nancy Kwallek, Carol Lewis and A.S. Robbins of the University of Texas assessed the effects of a red, green and white office environment on worker production and mood. It was predicted that those who worked in the red office would find it a more tense environment and would make more errors.†(Miller 1997: 104). It was also expected that the subjects working in the green office would perform better than those in the red office. The white office was included as a comparison as it is the most common colour for an office working environment. The white office was expected to provide results that were better than red, but worse than green. In actuality the results told a different story. The workers in the red office actually made fewer errors than those in the white or green offices, even though they found the colour â€Å"distracting. (Mill er 1997: 104). The research team found that subjects working in the white office made more errors than those working in the red or the green office. On a personal level the subjects stated their preference to working in the white environment, considering it a â€Å"more appropriate colour for an office than either red or green.†(Miller 1997: 104). However, in response to this test, Ainsworth, Simpson and Cassell in their study, Effects of Three Colours in an Office Interior on Mood and Performance in 1993 found no effect of colour on performance or emotion. (Cassidy 1997: 85). Their hypothesis led them to believe that the warm colour, red, would induce high arousal and activity, whereas blue will induce feelings of low arousal. However, their results did not support their hypothesis. They concluded that the reason for error was in their methods, not in their actual hypothesis. If the data gathering was flawed then we must omit their findings and focus on the original test. T he red office environment produced the least amount of mistakes, whereas the white office was the preferred colour of the subjects. What these two studies show is the importance of colour and how human behaviour reacts to it. The science behind this is complex and an understanding of how a human ‘sees’ colour is vital. Colour exists everywhere there is light. Sir Isaac Newton, analysing the rays of the sun, detected that all the different colours, except extreme purple are contained in light. The brain responds to it instinctively and unconsciously. As Schauss demonstrated, the colours within our immediate environment affect our mood and ultimately our behaviour. This behaviour is individually subjective but reactions to colour combinations can be predicted with startling accuracy: â€Å"Science has always recognised the link between colour combinations and mood or behaviour. (Conway 2004: 76). The exact science of how we see colour is due to how the various wavelengths of light strike our eyes in different ways, affecting our senses: â€Å"Within the eye, the retina converts these waves into elect rical impulses, allowing the brain to decode this visual information. This information is passed to the hypothalamus, the part of the brain governing our endocrine system producing hormones, and hormones affect our mood. (Conway 2004: 76). In other words the eye must operate with light for the brain to interpret colour: Everything we see is coloured. Nothing visible is free of colour. This has profound consequences, for colour affects the autonomic nervous system, muscle tension, cortical activity, enzymatic and hormonal secretions. (Day 2007: 115). With this in mind it is important to quantify how different colours affect our behaviour, both mentally and physically. Our cultural and historical upbringing will play a part in how we react to certain colour schemes. In simplistic terms it could be argued that warm colours such as reds, oranges and yellows will incite an active response, exciting the subject; whereas cooler colours such as blues and greens will calm and quieten them. In fact it has been argued that the power of colour placement is a science and should not be left to the uneducated: So powerfully do they influence mood, and such potential do their relationships have for harmony or discord, spirit-uplifting beauty or teeth-gritting ugliness, that colours are too important just to leave to fashion or dramatic whim. (Day 2007: 116). But how does colour affect human behaviour? In the Schauss experiment one colour managed to pacify, it even lowered pulse and heart rates of its subjects. This goes one step further than th e subject merely relating to the notion of seeing a soft colour. One theory is that we do not only ‘see’ with our eyes, but we indirectly see with the glands that produce hormones in our brains; the pineal gland, a gland that produces melatonin, a hormone that may weakly modulate wake and sleep patterns: Although a person may not be able to differentiate colour, transmitters in the eyes pick up information from visible radiant energy sources and transmit that energy to the hypothalamus, and the pineal and pituitary glands. So it may be possible to see with your glands. (Eiseman 2000: 40). This theory is one that Schauss promotes in his Baker-Miller study: â€Å"One possibility includes the existence of a hormone (e.g. thyrotropin-releasing hormones, TRH, thyroliberin) acting as a neurotransmitter to the hypo-thalamus or pineal gland. This could in turn effect other cells in the adrenal medulla, supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus, the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system, and the turberoinfundibular cells of the hypothalamus.†(Schauss 1981: 1). What these theories allow is the possibility that in a controlled environment, clever use of colour can and will affect the psychological and physiological behaviour of targeted subjects, albeit in a basic premise of colour application. Moods are influential, but they not always control behaviour, the tenden
Wednesday, October 2, 2019
Changes Of Time :: essays research papers
Ever since the invention of the television in 1939, African Americans have been portrayed as maids, servants or clowns. These negative perceptions started to appear in sitcoms such as in Amos and Andy, who were the stereotypical blacks who never took anything seriously. All those views changed during the 1970’s when black sitcoms were becoming more reality based. Although blacks have been, and often still, portrayed in a negative way on TV, there has been some improvements of stereotypical images of African Americans on television. There were five stereotypical roles of blacks between 1940-1970; the Tom, Coon, Mammie, Tragic Mulatto, and the Buck (Gray â€Å"Recognizing†). The â€Å"Tom†was always insulted, but kept to his faith and remained generous and kind. The â€Å"coon†(most used image) was always lazy, unreliable and constantly butchered his speech. The â€Å"mammie†was more distinguished than the coon only because of her sex. She was usually big and plump and full of life. The â€Å"tragic mulatto†was fair-skinned, trying to pass for white. Always well-liked and believed that their lives could have been better if they were not biracial. The last stereotype was the â€Å"buck†. He was the big, oversexed black man (Gray â€Å"Recognizing†). In the late 1960’s, there were shows like â€Å"I Spy†and â€Å"The Flip Wilson Show†which had blacks starring in them. Starting in 1971, shows were premiering everywhere with black casts (â€Å"Changing Image†76). Sanford and Son appeared on NBC on January 14,1972, to replace another show (Booth 26). The show took place in South Central California, where Fred Sanford and his son Lamont lived and owned a junkyard. Fred was satisfied with his little business. However, Lamont, wanted something bigger and better. Fred would do anything to keep his son from abandoning him and the business. Every time Lamont threatened to leave, Fred would do his famous act and fake a heart attack and start moaning to his late wife, "I'm coming, Elizabeth, I'm coming." Lamont, never fooled by his father's scheme did love him and, despite what he said about his future, really would not have left him (â€Å"Network and Cable†). They were rated the 6th most pop ular show during the 1971-72 season, and 10th during the 1976-77 season. The stereotype was still there, but realistic views were appearing on the show of realistic lives of black men. After Sanford and Son aired, others followed. Good Times appeared in 1974 (Ingram ‘Good Times†).
How Miller Presents Joe Keller as a Tragic Hero in All My Sons Essay
How Miller Presents Joe Keller as a Tragic Hero in All My Sons Joe Keller is a man who loves and values his family very much. Like most Americans he has given everything so he can have the big house, the fancy car and the bulging wallet. He has given everything so he can have the American Dream. Unfortunately for Keller, everything isn't as perfect as it seems. "All My Sons" is a very tragic play. It shows how a man can sacrifice everything including the honour of his name to make his family prosperous. This struggle for wealth and material goods involves Keller doing an awful crime because he wants his family to be wealthy. This is the cause of Keller's downfall. In "All My Sons" Miller examines the morality of a man who places his narrow responsibility to his immediate family above his wider responsibility to the men who rely on the integrity of his work. "All My Sons" shows Keller placing his family in front of society. At the end of "All My Sons" Keller disappears offstage and shoots himself. This is a very tragic thing to happen because all Keller wanted was a happy family. When Chris finds out that Keller, his father, had allowed faulty cylinder heads to be sent out of his factory, Keller proves to the audience that he wanted good to come from it by saying "what the hell did I work for? That's only for you, Chris, the whole shootin' match is for you" on page 102 and "For you, a business for you!" on page 158. This tells the audience that Keller was a very hard worker and that all the hard work he did was for his family. After hearing this Keller doesn't sound like a murderer or a killer at all. He sounds like a very loving and devoted father and husband who may have done something wrong but ... ...admires him for being able to wriggle his way out of a prison sentence. They admire him for how clever he was to lie and pin the blame on someone else. I think this is a very corrupt society and I think that is what Miller was trying to portray to the audience in "All My Sons". Miller wanted to get across to the audiences his views on American society. I think Miller writes about another broader tragedy in the play besides Keller's tragedy. This tragedy is the society we live in today and how nobody looks out for each other. It is all about the survival of the fittest nowadays. This is what Chris tries to stand up against throughout the play. Keller's tragedy in "All My Sons" is that he works so hard for the American Dream and at the end of the play he shoots himself. By doing this he is giving up everything he has worked so hard for over his life.
Tuesday, October 1, 2019
Direct Democracy
In the United States, direct democracy takes its most evident form in ballot initiatives. According to the president of the Initiative and Referendum Institute, M. Dane Waters, a version of this practice was said to have existed as early as the 1600s in New England. The practice then was for proposed ordinances to be placed on the agenda to be discussed by the whole town and later approved by voting on them during their town meetings.However, Dane Waters continued, ballot initiative as it is known today started during the 1900s – specifically in 1978 when Proposition 13 reduced the property taxes in California from 2. 5 percent to 1 percent. That California initiative resulted to limitations in the property taxes of 43 states and a reduced rate in the income taxes in 15 states (Cato Policy Report). A Washington Post columnist, David S.Broder described ballot initiatives as a tool designed to enable the people to directly write laws and in the process, check the influence being wielded by interest groups in the legislative process. Unfortunately, Broder explained, the initiative process is flawed since the opinion of those who are in disagreement is not being heard. Because of this defect, he maintained, statutes approved through ballot initiatives are not being subjected to checks and balances, effectively robbing the minority of their right to be heard.Broder argued that this contradicts the intent of the founding fathers (Cato Policy Report). The chairman of the Cato Institute, William A. Niskanen, disagreed. He stressed that the initiative process is actually a system of checks and balances since it regulates the power of legislatures. In other words, it does not weaken the American system of government. Dane Waters supported the view of Niskanen. He maintained that ballot initiatives were not meant to introduce adverse changes in the American system of government but to enrich it.In fact, he said, even the founding fathers had recognized its wisdom. To prove his point, he quoted James Madison, one of the founding fathers, who said that As the people are the only legitimate fountain of power, and it is from them that the Constitutional Charter under which the several branches of government hold their power is derived, it seems strictly consonant to the republican theory to recur to the same original authority whenever it may be necessary to enlarge, diminish, or new-model the powers of government (Cato Policy Report).Ellen Ann Andersen, in â€Å"OUT OF THE CLOSESTS & into the Courts, demonstrated how a ballot initiative works. In her search for a suitable illustration, she decided to look at the effects of the initiative process on the civil rights of lesbians, gays and bisexuals (lgb’s). Her decision was baaed on the fact that until 1993, the focus of approximately 60 percent of all ballot initiatives in the country was the civil rights of lgb’s.She therefore concentrated on the most famous of these initiatives à ¢â‚¬â€œ Amendment 2 which was approved by the voters in Colorado in 1992 (Andersen). Amendment 2 was sparked by a proposed ordinance on human rights which was heard by the Human Rights Commission of Colorado Springs in 1991. The proposal sought to prohibit discrimination of any kind based on â€Å"race and color, their religion and creed, their national origin and ethnicity, their age, marital status, their sexual orientation, or their disabled condition.†It immediately encountered stiff opposition mostly from big fundamentalist Christian groups which included the biggest Christian radio ministry in the country – the Focus on the Family. Due to the relentless assault that they made against the proposed ordinance, it was finally defeated in the city council by a vote of 8-1 (Andersen). Things did not end there, however. The defeat of the proposed human rights ordinance started a statewide campaign against gay rights which culminated to the framing of Amendment 2.A grou p named Colorado for Family Values (CFV) was organized at the behest of three individuals, namely: Tony Marco, an anti-gay activist; David Noebel, head of anticommunist Summit Ministries, and Kevin Tebedo, who was the son of Maryanne Tebedo, a senator of the state of Colorado. CFV was able to establish links with national conservative organizations. It obtained the assistance of the â€Å"National Legal Foundation†in drafting Amendment 2 and used the handbook which was written by a lawyer who represented the â€Å"Concerned Women for America†as a guide for its efforts to promote the amendment.The proponents of Amendment 2 appealed to the moral values of the people and capitalized on their lack of adequate knowledge about homosexuality as they painted gays and lesbians as a hazard to society. It distributed a bulletin which alleged that Lately, America has been hearing a lot about the subject of childhood sexual abuse. This terrible epidemic has scarred countless youn g lives and destroyed thousands of families. But what militant homosexuals don’t want you to know is the large role they play in this epidemic.In fact, pedophilia (the sexual molestation of children) is actually an accepted part of the homosexual community (Andersen)! CFV also declared to the people of Colorado that homosexuals represented a great danger to the overall health of the community because they are the most relentless carriers of â€Å"sexually transmitted diseases; they are the most fertile breeders of diseases; and that by the middle of the 1990s, hospital bed would be difficult to come by due to the large number of homosexuals who are infected with AIDS (Andersen).Black propaganda such as these, coupled with the findings of a poll which was commissioned by the Denver Post which showed that 46 percent of respondents considered homosexuality to be morally wrong, 40 percent tolerated homosexuals, and 14 percent declared their neutrality, enabled the anti-gay secto rs of Colorado to deal a crushing blow to the gay militants. The CFV campaign also argued that lgb’s should not be granted protected status or â€Å"special rights†because they were not â€Å"legitimate†minorities having failed to satisfy the criteria set forth by Supreme Court decisions, namely:1. A group wanting true minority rights must show that it’s discriminated against to the point that its members cannot earn average income, get an adequate education, or enjoy a fulfilling cultural life. 2. The group must be clearly identifiable by unchangeable physical characteristics like skin color, gender, handicap, etc. (not behavior). 3. The group must clearly show that it is politically powerless (Andersen). In spite of the sting that black propaganda caused, it was the â€Å"no special rights†campaign slogan that dealt the greatest damage to the gay militants.Lawyer Jean Dubofsky said that The â€Å"no special rights†slogan was very cleve r, particularly given a time when at least white males don’t like affirmative action. The Amendment 2 people spent a lot of time talking about (how) you don’t want gays and lesbians getting in front of you in line for jobs or scholarships or college. Of course, that wasn’t what Amendment 2 was all about overall, but that’s the way it was sold†¦. People I talked with voted for it because they felt gay and lesbians should not get affirmative action (Andersen).In other words, Amendment 2 was ultimately approved by the voters of Colorado, thanks mainly to the underhanded campaign tactics employed by its proponents. Thus ended the political struggle waged by the gay activists. They were decidedly beaten in the political battle. However, it turned out that they were far from accepting defeat. Defeated in the political arena, they then turned to the legal battle. Amendment 2 proponents had only nine days to savor the taste of victory before the lgb’s petitioned the federal district court.A complaint was filed in the name of the following: Richard Evans (he was a former employee at the Mayor’s office of Denver who was open with his being gay); five other lgb’s; and a heterosexual male who was infected with AIDS. The cities of Boulder, Denver, and Aspen were also included as complainants because they had ordinances which protected the rights of lgb’s which Amendment 2 would effectively nullify (Andersen). The second aspect of the initiative process (the legal battle) turned out to be a different matter altogether.Prepared even before the election day as a â€Å"fallback†strategy, the complaint included several allegations. First, it argued that Amendment 2 violated the equal protection clause of the constitution. Then it claimed that the amendment denied lgb’s of their freedom of expression as well as association. Finally, it alleged that Amendment 2 was in violation of due process and the â₠¬Å"right to petition government for a redress of grievances†(Andersen). The difference between the political and the legal aspects of the initiative became immediately evident.Whereas the voters were the center of decision-making in the political exercise, the legal battle transferred the power to decide to the judges. A total of thirteen judges heard the arguments whether Amendment 2 should be considered constitutional. One was a district court judge; three were justices of the Supreme Court of Colorado; and nine justices came from the United States Supreme Court (Andersen). The two sides presented the same arguments that they used during the campaign.The proponents of the amendment argued that they were simply against granting homosexuals special rights and that they were interested in safeguarding the well-being of children and the family, and allow the state to allocate its resources to assisting the legitimate minorities. The gay advocates, on the other hand, argued that in fact â€Å"special rights†as employed by the proponents of the Amendment was merely a red herring to mislead people and that the Amendment would effectively deprive them of their rights and constitutionally-guaranteed protection.They further claimed that Amendment 2 was only motivated by the hostility of its proponents towards lgb’s and that homosexuality was in fact not only a â€Å"life-style choice†but is comparable to race and sexual orientation (Andersen). What happened, however, was while their arguments won for the proponents the battle for the ballot, the same arguments caused them to lose their case in court. Ironically, a dissenting judge claimed that the act of the majority justices from the Supreme Court in striking down the Amendment had been an act â€Å"not of judicial judgment, but of political will†(Andersen). Direct Democracy The assumption underlying the discussion on the initiative process is that the employment of paid petitioners is a harmful development reducing the quality of our democracy and privileging money over true commitment to causes that are put on ballot. However, this assumption is a questionable one, and counterevidence is abundant.Therefore, this essay will have the following structure: first of all, it will show little harms in employing paid signature-gatherers that are offset by possible benefits of such design of the initiative process, and, secondly, the essay will criticize the workability of the solutions offered in the concluding section of the chapter. The perceived danger in allowing paid petitioners is that only causes that enjoy considerable financial support can make their way to the ballot. Another threat, as opponents of this policy argue, is associated with the fact that it is devastating to the spirit of volunteerism and civic involvement.There is a view that ‘[p] aying petitioners degraded the signature gatherer because it came to be seen as a sales job rather than as the precious province of the public-spirited citizen’ (Ellis, 2002, p. 48). Thus, the need for mobilizing and engaging citizens becomes virtually irrelevant to policy-making process. However, there is little persuasive evidence that paid petitioners signify the death of grassroots and the advent of the ‘greenback democracy. ’ Issues that arouse strong public sentiment can recruit a sufficient number of volunteers to push their case through.There are several reasons why volunteer signatures drive will survive in the future. First of all, using volunteers in the qualification phase can help save money for the electoral contest. Secondly, volunteer petitioners often gather signatures with higher validity rates, thus the number of signatures needed decreases whenever volunteers are used. Thirdly, volunteer-based signature gathering campaigns constitute a way to mobilize and inform citizens. Fourthly, volunteer signatures drive is a powerful public relations tool, since such initiatives usually enjoy positive publicity (Ellis, 2002).Volunteer campaigns have potential to succeed only if a campaign issue can easily generate strong feelings among the public. Yet issues arousing strong public sentiment are few and far between; more often, it is an interest of a smaller group of people that is at stake, but it is undemocratic to disregard the plea of such groups of citizens only because their case does not excite hearts and minds of their fellow citizens. In the modern democracy, there are few deeply appalling wrongs that need immediate remedy and can attract crowds of concerned citizen, like the case of African Americans in the 1960s.In the modern democracy, incremental changes need to be made to accommodate different interests and to make their coexistence more efficient and pleasurable for all. Numerous notable initiatives, serving community interests best, made their way to the ballot thanks to paid petitioners. Furthermore, the ban on paid petitioners will affect different states in different ways. It will create a dangerous disparity in the quality of the initiative process in states with smaller and bigger populations.For example, it will create considerable complications for signature gathering in such states as California, where the number of signatures that are necessary for an initiative to be put on ballot can be several times higher than in other states. It is especially relevant given the everyday life constraints on citizenship and civic participation. Consumerist ideology makes long working hours an imperative and leaves people with less time to participate in politics and community affairs. People volunteer in their leisure time, and leisure is a competitive sector.It is hard to expect a large number of citizens to sacrifice their spare time for gathering signatures in favor of their cause, however strongl y they feel about it. Indeed, ‘[t]he main hurdle that most initiative proponents face is finding enough people willing and able to dedicate a large number of hours to gathering signatures’ (Ellis, 2002, p. 53). Moreover, there are legitimate concerns that the ban on paid petitioners will privilege people with abundant amount of spare time over those possessing more financial resources. In fact, paid petitioners democratize the initiative process by making it more inclusive.Many citizens do not hold strong opinions on some issues, but it by no means indicates that these issues should be excluded from the democratic debate. There are issues that are hard to frame in the way that solicits a passionate positive or negative attitude. In addition, privileging people with spare time over those with money borders on classism. For example, unemployed citizens with a lot of spare time can recruit a large number of volunteer to campaign for a welfare reform, while middle-class bus inessmen do not have such time to petition for a tax reduction.In a democracy, all groups ought to have equal access to the mechanisms of democratic participation and should be allowed to make the best use of resources available to them to ensure such participation. Therefore, as Ellis (2002, p. 54) notes, ‘the rise of paid petitioners and professional signature-gathering firms promotes democracy by increasing the involvement of a wider diversity of groups. ’ The ban on paid petitioners will not significantly decrease the role of big interests and money in the initiative process.A fact that is often overlooked by the opponents of paid petitioners concerns the evidence that recruitment, training, and coordination of volunteers mean considerable costs to an initiative sponsor, although volunteers work for free (Ellis, 2002). Moreover, the ban on paid petitioners will give an unfair advantage to organizations with better access to human resources. It ‘would advantage firms that employed large numbers of people and would make it impossible for all but the most popular causes to exercise the right of direct democracy’ (Ellis, 2002, p. 48).The opponents of paid petitioners also overlook the fact that signature gathering firms have a more professional approach to the initiative process. One of the possible advantages, as Ellis (2002) acknowledges, is that such firms have more experience in planning signature gathering campaigns and can offer a clear timeline for the process. However, there is another important advantage in employing signature gathering firms. Professionals working there can inform citizens more efficiently by presenting information about the issue at stake in a more accessible and understandable way.Thus, the indirect benefit of using paid petitioners is greater awareness of the citizenry on a wider array of issues. The proposal to ban paid petitioners also underestimates people’s ability to choose whether to sign a p etition. It is argued that signatories to petitions do not express their real opinion but agree to sign them ‘for a variety of reasons, among which are desire to be rid of the solicitor or to help him earn a day’s wages’ (Register, 1913; in Ellis, 2002). However, citizens are often more aware and concerned than this notion assumes.Many of them refuse to sign petitions that contradict their convictions. If ignorance was the case, volunteer signature drives would be as futile as professional signature gathering firms. Having proven that the harms involved in the process of employing paid petitioners in the initiative process are often exaggerated, there is a need to critique the proposed solutions to the perceived crisis. Providing more information about signature gathering will have little effect, as citizens are already overwhelmed with information on public issues.Few would dedicate their time to studying booklets on how certain initiatives made their way to the ballot. There are cognitive constraints on the amount of information citizens can consume. Furthermore, few would have enough spare time to devote it to reading booklets with information on how many volunteers and how many paid petitioners were employed to gather support for a certain initiative. The proposal to leave petitions with county registration officers can be dismissed on similar grounds: citizens do not have enough spare time to dedicate to public affairs.Valuing signatures collected by volunteers over those collected by paid petitioners is simply non-enforceable. Abandoning signature gathering altogether is also not a viable alternative, since the process of petitioning presents at least some checks on the power of large interests. Paid petitioners ensure that issues of at least some interest to at least some groups of citizens make their way to the ballot. In fact, it does not quite matter how issues are placed on ballot; what matters most is the citizens’ abilit y to express their opinion about different initiatives in a popular vote.
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